Benefits of Subtitles in English Learning

Benefits of Subtitles in face LearningCHAPTER IINTRODUCTION 1.1 BackgroundAll by dint of with(predicate) the years, in that location has been an change magnitude emphasis on instruct side of meat as an instrument for intercourse, and applied science has played a critical manoeuver in facilitating au whencetic parley. The effort of haggle teaching objectives and practices has changed from the printed word and knowledge of phrase systems to the practise and communicative value of the spoken speech communication in the everyday move ( trainderplank, 1993). In a sense, the energy of multimedia has drawn great consideration and is presumed, under the theory of adding an additional get of media to send out a message, to signifi hind endtly make better communication and apprehension (Dwyer, 1978). Multimedia engineering ( the resembling TV, computers, nedeucerks, emails motion picture cassette recorders (VCRS), compact disc ready- alone memories (CD-ROMs) and intera ctive multimedia) aids the teaching technique of integrating real-life situations with the heading wording into the spoken communication classroom. In this meticulous setting, scholarly persons slowly expand their lyric learning by being exposed to the authentic environment of the target address. t each(prenominal)y to one of the most(prenominal) owing(p) theories of arcminute lecture acquisition, Krashen (1985) proposed that learners can learn a large cargo deck rarify of quarrel unconsciously by ample comprehensible stimulus. The stimulation surmise, stated by Krashen, argues that the use of a target language in real communicative environments and the stress on rich comprehensible excitant by exposing the learners to the target language in the classroom facilitate their language acquisition. In former(a) words, language acquisition only happens when comprehensible stimulus is suitably delivered. In this respect, language teachers manage to usage a wide range of teaching techniques to make authentic situations and to promote learners language acquisition.M both exploreers fuddle presented strong evidence that multimedia (like computers, characterization, and TV) sire useful ensnares on language tuition due to rich and authentic comprehensible input (Brett, 1995 Egbert Jessup, 1996 Khalid, 2001). Results of these studies demonstrated the significance of the use of multimedia develops learners language implementation in teaching, listening scholarship and lexicon recognition. One survey say by the American Association of School Administrators tryed that 94 percent of teachers and supervisors view that technology has produced students nurture considerably. Similarly, more(prenominal) position-as-a-Second Language (ESL) teachers concur that schoolingal technology presents many possibilities for progressing students language proficiency, including their phrase, construe, listening, and speaking.Similarly, telecasti ng programs and images drop created a place in the communication of randomness and ar powerful apparatus in improving language teaching (Anderson Lorch, 1983). Both TV and videos communicate non only optic anyy through pictures precisely in any case aurally throughout the spoken word, music and sound effects. The furnish, a key role on television and videotapes, is coordinated with the talk or narration of the programs audio recording track, expanding intelligence and understanding of TV programs and videos. Lambert, Boehler and Sidoti (1981) have asserted that the constant usual movement designates that information coming through two input types (e.g., dialogue and subtitles) is more(prenominal) systematically surgical figure outed than if either dialogue or subtitles argon presented alone. This result is in agreement with the dual-coding theory by Allan Paivio (1971), sustaining the public utility of multiple-channel communication. In the same way, Hartmans (196 1a) findings support the surrounded by-channel redundancy theory which suggested that when information is redundant between two input sources (e.g., dialog and subtitles), intelligence will be surpassing than when the information is coming through one input form, (e.g., dialog). He also gave a description of redundant information as analogous information from the visual and communicatory stimuli. In this respect, Hartman completed that the benefit of the multiple-channel learning system is this information coming from two information sources is more comprehensible than that through one. Information input through contrary sensory channels supplies receivers with additional stimuli reinforcement to guarantee that more complete learning happens. More explicitly, the additional stimuli reinforcement helps out learners in systematizing and structuring the entree information.However, a argumentationing theory, the single channel theory proposed by Broadbent (1958), states that hum an can only process information throughout one channel at a time. This theory assumes that the decline of learning takes place if the information is received through two or more sources. The learning is delayed when the multiple-channel insertion of information is utilize in the teaching-learning process. Along with this messageious viewpoint between the single and the multiple-channel creation, an aw argonness of and affaire in the use of multimedia resources have been increasing, like the presentation of subtitled materials.Today, language learning has turned out to be more available by implementing multimedia with spoken information and full visual con textbook, much(prenominal) as subtitles. For instance, subtitled videos representing words and pictures in an aural and in a visual form be more app atomic round 18nt to activate twain coding systems in the reckon than words or pictures alone. The dual-coding theory proposed by Paivio (1971) suggests that when pictures are added to the meaning, the number of signals connected with the message increases. Viewers then will be more probable to keep the message in mind. Therefore, the results of the past research appear to sustain the aspect that the use of subtitles causes multi-sensory processing, interacting with audio, video and print mechanisms. These information input universes get the process of language learning better, improve the comprehension of the mental ability, and increase vocabulary by looking at the subtitled words in meaningful and stimulating circumstances. In addition, a dress circle of teachers consider subtitles shed some parvenu light on a better way of using various multimedia in the ESL classroom. When subtitled technology appeared more than 15 years ago, many educators quickly saw value in exploiting its potential in helping students process language in a different way and effectively by means of the printed word. (Goldman, 1996 Holobow, Lambert, Sayegh, 1984 Koskinen, Wilson, Gambrell, Neuman, 1993 Parks, 1994 Vanderplank, 1993).1.1.1 SubtitleSubtitles, which are incline indite subtitles on instructional English-as-second-language (ESL) videos in this larn, are the written variant of the audio constituent that permits dialogue, music, narration and sound effects to be shown at the git of the screen on most televisions. There are two kinds of subtitles explained in general terms the open subtitle and the closed subtitle. Closed subtitles refer to the subtitles that are non automatically viewable to the viewer however can be viewed by turning on through use of a remote control or an electronic subtitle decoder. By wrinkle, open subtitles are visible to all viewers without turning them on with a remote control. Subtitling is not only the main function of the TV but a positive function of video tapes. Video tapes offer subtitling by those who specialize in computer workstations. To make subtitles visible, an electronic subtitle decoder is obligatory, that is easily attached to a television set. Although it is not available in some areas of the human being, subtitling technology is broadly approachible and draws great attention in the United States. In 1990, the U. S. Congress passed the Television decoder Circuitry be active requiring that all current televisions, thirteen inches or larger, be prepared with subtitle decoder circuitry. The function of the decoder circuitry is to receive, decode, and show closed subtitles from cable, DVD signals and videotape appropriately. With author to this regulation, the consumer is no longer required to pay for a separate decoder, when in possession of an applicable TV set. Therefore, thousands of stack in the U.S. have access to subtitles without any trouble by pushing the button on the remote controls (National Subtitleing Institute, 1989). However, available access of subtitles on foreign film videos is still restricted in other countries, such(prenominal) as Taiwan an d Japan, where external subtitle decoders are necessary for viewing.Subtitleing was devised initially for the hearing impaired. The statistics on the number of decoders sold confirm that more than half were bought for the hearing impaired who assert that decoders are useful to them. Increasingly, the use of subtitles has also augmented among the non-native speakers who are motivated to improve their language learning. A study by Hofmeister, Menlove, and Thorkildsen (1992) discovered that 40 percent of people other than the hearing impaired buy the decoders, such as foreign students. To be explicit, the motive for this phenomenon is that subtitles show words in a motivating atmosphere where the audio, video and print media help viewers comprehend the unknown words and meanings in their context. However, subtitles have a great impact on comprehension improvement of specific TV programs and improve English language learning progressively.For the benefits of the multimedia approach, E SL programs began to incorporate subtitled materials into the curricula to help ESL students language learning. The cerebrate on teaching techniques and on means of optimizing students comprehension of the second language has been of great concern through this multimedia. Koskinen, Wilson, Gambrell, and Neuman (1993) stated that the subtitled video is a new and lustrous approach for improving students vocabulary, reading comprehension, and motivation. Other researches have been conducted to inspect whether subtitled TV and video improve or obstruct students learning. The results have indicated that subtitled TV and videos are helpful for the hearing impaired, ESL students and disabled students (Bean Wilson, 1989 Borras Lafayette, 1994 Ellsworth, 1992 Garza, 1991 Goldman, 1996 Goldman Goldman, 1988 Markham, 1989 Nugent, 1983 Parlato, 1985 Price, 1983 Vanderplank, 1991 Webb, Vanderplank, Parks, 1994 Wilson Koskinen, 1986).Despite a large number of studies suggesting/demonstrati ng the benefits of the use of subtitles for the deaf, language learners, and disabled students, similar studies on the use of English subtitles in English teaching are still limited in Iran. thence, there is great scope for additional examination into the potential use of subtitled television videos to enhance language teaching to English-as-Foreign-Language (EFL) students. The design of this research elaborates mainly on the language learning achievements.This study adds to the aforementioned to investigate the exposure of target language input to students through the presentation subtitled videos. This research contractes on the absence or presence of 10 English subtitled ESL instructional video episodes for a period of five weeks as a primary variable in an experiment to help determine the conditions for the improvement of Iranian college students learning English as a foreign language in Iran.1.2 Statement of the ProblemMany people in Iran have occupations when it comes to co mmunicating with foreigners in English. In addition, to get information from the Internet, having a fair amount of English knowledge is required. That makes accessing information a problem for those with limited English language proficiency. In addition, those Iranian students who wish to study abroad, language is the main problem since they have studied in Farsi for all their educational life, and thus adapting to a non-Persian environment is consequently very difficult. Students in Iran, start learning the Basic English at their secondary schools, however the curriculum structure, is based on teaching grammar rather than oral skills therefore, most students oral communication skills are limited. .Moloney (1995) states that the emergence of English in the global market has resulted in the current ardor for learning English in developing countries. The need for English in Iran is unique. English is not only a required course for Iranian students, but also required and tested as part of major entrance examinations in Iran. These mentioned issues are passing game to be considered in proposing subtitles in videos and English learning word picture solution.1.3 Objectives of the StudyThe purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of subtitled videos in enhancing university students language learning in Iran English as a foreign language (EFL). In the study, the term language learning represents two types of performances. The first is students content comprehension of a ill-tempered video episode, as evaluated by a pith Specific Tests (CST) and the second is to investigate the learners vocabulary acquisition.1.4 Significance of the StudyTeachers professional development activities always focus on those types of teaching strategies that help students improve along with their path of learning process. As the research has been designed to discover the effectiveness of presenting subtitles on the movies on vocabulary acquisition and content comprehens ion, it would be of much significance if confirmed that this strategy works. Generally speaking, it can also been resulted that the finding of this research also could be added to the proboscis of language teaching, learning and use of multimedia technology knowledge. The findings of this study can be share with the curriculum designers, EFL/ ESL teachers for the technology to be implemented in the classroom, materials developers for English teaching1.5 HypothesesThis study focuses on English language learners performance on the Content-Specific Tests (CST) of vocabulary, and content comprehension of videos with and without subtitles. The researcher tested each of the following null hypotheses as she controls the initial differences of the participants in their general English proficiency.Ho 1 There is no significant difference on the scores of the content comprehension subtest of the CST between subjects observance videos with subtitles and those ceremony videos without subtitle s.Ho 2 There is no significant difference on the scores in the content vocabulary subtest of the CST between subjects ceremonial videos with subtitles and those watching videos without subtitles. 1.6 Research Question1. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their vocabulary significantly?2. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their content comprehension significantly?3. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their English language proficiency significantly?1.7 Definition of the TermsThe definitions are granted here to make sure uniformity and understanding of these terms throughout the study.1.7.1 SubtitleSubtitle is the spoken words designed for the deaf and hearing-impaired people helping them read what they cannot hear. The terms subtitles and subtitles are interchangeably used in this research and are described as the translations of the spoken words to the written with the iden tical language shown at the bottom of the screen.1.7.2 Closed SubtitleA subtitle of spoken words viewed by a special decoding wile installed in the television set or a special decoder machine.1.7.3 Open SubtitleA subtitle of spoken words that always is printed at the bottom of the screen.1.7.4 Content-Specific Test (CST)An instrument designed by the researcher for this study used to measure learners overall comprehension in terms of vocabulary and content comprehension of a particular video segment. The CST entangles the two subtests vocabulary and content comprehension.1.7.5 Content VocabularyThe vocabulary that comes into sight from the particular video piece viewed by the subjects1.7.6 Content ComprehensionContent comprehension that focuses mainly on the solely story script and test viewers comprehension of the particular information shown in the video1.8 Limitation of the StudyThe researcher encountered difficulty in access to the samples of all Iranian population of EFL lear ners since the country is very huge and the numbers of English learners are so many. It was very hard to control teachers inside-class activities based on the methodologies presented to them. Non-generalizability of the findings to all English learners, especially ESL learners is another which is because the research is conducted in an EFL (Iran) context. The last but not the least limitation is the material choice since there are various types of videos. Therefore, the researcher had to restrict the video to an instructional video, connect with English since it is both with and without subtitle available as well as being suitable for the proficiency level of the participants.1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDYThis study is split into five chapters. Chapter I introduces the raiseation for this research, the purpose of the study, and definitions of key terms used throughout the study to diminish potential misunderstanding.Chapter II presents a review of the literature of the use of subti tles. It starts with a theoretic review of the cognitive information processing relevant to the single channel theory and the multiple-channel theory, with focus on the cue-summation theory, the between-channel redundancy theory, the dual-coding theory and the aptitude theory. It then keeps on with a discussion of the schemata theory, the Comprehensible Input Hypothesis by Krashen and the ACT Model by Anderson. Subsequently, the relevant major research on subtitles for the hearing-impaired, disabled, frequent reading ability, and language learners is offered.Chapter III outlines the method of hypotheses scrutiny formulated in Chapter I. It also includes the research design, followed by a description of the subjects in this study, the treatment materials employed, the testing instruments, the info collection procedure, and the details of the data analysis applied.In Chapter IV, the analyses are performed to reveal the research hypotheses are explained in detail, with the quantita tive results of these analyses and an interpretation of the results.The final chapter, Chapter V, summarizes the findings of the study in light of research hypotheses and discusses the performance of the subjects and the results of the analyses shown in Chapter IV. The conclusion interprets the effect of subtitled videos on EFL students language learning in relation to their listening and reading comprehension and their vocabulary. To synthesise the conclusion of this study, pedagogical implications, the limitations of the study and further research are presented.CHAPTER II 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Cognitive Processing TheoriesIn many communities near the world, competence in two, or more, languages is an issue of considerable personalised, socio- ethnic, economic, and political significance. (Fred Genesee McGill University, WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT BILINGUAL EDUCTION FOR MAJORITY LANGUAGE STUDENTS). Historical documents indicate that individualistics and whole communities around the world have been compelled to learn other languages for centuries and they have done so for a variety of reasons such as language affaire, colonization, trade, education through a colonial language (e.g., Latin, Greek), intermarriage, among others (Lewis, 1977). The term learning has been considered in different ways by psychologists throughout score. Some behaviorists believe that learning is a comparatively permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of experience or practice. In addition Iranian students consider the radical-changing world as a situation of globalization that makes them study English as their second language and also a key to main language of scholarship. Thus Iranian government obliged students to start studying courses in English from early primary school through to university over a course of about(predicate) 7 years. Despite this, reports show poor linguistic results thus there is a requirement for an in-depth analysis of the teaching methods to understand the reasons for failure.Analyzing the process of effective learning, usually this is divided into two different components, first is individual interest in a topic and the second part is situational interest (Hidi, 1990). Individual interest is say to be the degree to which the learner or the reader is interested in a certain topic, subject area, or any special activity (Prenzel, 1988 Schiefele, 1990). Situational interest is explained as an emotional state aroused by situational stimuli (Anderson, Shirey, Wilson, Fielding, 1987 Hidi, 1990). The literature shows that the individual interest of the reader learner has a positive influence on text comprehension (Anderson, Mason, Shimey, 1984 Asher, 1980 Baldwin, Peleg-Bruckner, McClintock, 1985 Belloni Jongsma, 1978 Bernstein, 1955 Entin Klare, 1985 Osako Anders, 1983 Renninger, 1988 Stevens, 1982).However these researchers defined individual interests as the relatively long-term orientation of an individual towar ds a type of object, activity, or area of knowledge. This is why arouse faunas such as movies seem to have positive effect on learning. (Schiefele, 1987). Schiefele also believes that individual interest is itself a domain-specific or topic-specific motivational characteristic of personality, peaceful of feeling-related and value-related valences. Then, individual interest is naturally generated by a text that constitutes a feeling of enjoyment or involvement. Individual interest motivates the learner to become snarly in reading the specific subject matter.Fransson (1977) indicated that students who were interested in a special topic exhibited and showed deeper processing of a related text. Using free hark back and protracted interviews, Fransson found that high-interest subjects made more connections between both different parts of the text and also between what was read and prior knowledge or personal experience. Benware and Deci (1984) and Grolnick and Ryan (1987) arrived at almost the same results, demonstrating that topic-interested We shall also call it intrinsically motivated students exhibited markedly greater purposeual comprehension of text content in contrast with non-interested and extrinsically motivated students.The process of the language learning is seen as a complicate cognitive skill. According to Neisser (1967), cognitive psychology considers that all information passes a process through which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, focused, stored, recovered and used.Gardner and Lambert (1972) are said to be pioneers in the investigation of socio-psychological aspects of second-language learning. They conducted numerous studies on the relationships of attitudes and social-context to the process of learning a second language. They proposed a distinction between these two models integrative and instrumental motivation. The former is defined as a full identification by the learner with the target-language group and readiness to be i dentified as part of it. The latter indicates interest in learning L2 only as a tool to indulge a better future through social mobility in this case the learner does not identify with the target-language speakers. However integrative motivation is much considered more likely to lead to success in second language learning than instrumental motivation. Banduras (1986) and Zimmermans (1989).In particular, some of cognitive theorists believe that information-processing theory has the concept of capacity theory within itself. They suggest that the human capacity for learning a language is not regarded as an apart and disconnected from cognitive processes. According to Beck and McKeown (1991), most research on vocabulary leaning has focused on written text, probably because vocabulary research has developed under the umbrella of reading research. Having this feature in mind that arousing interests causes effectives in learning, is supported by a number of studies which have clearly ind icated that television programs and movie videos may also be used as a motivational tool to affect teaching techniques in the field of language learning, especially in the area of vocabulary learning. For instance, rice and Woodsmall (1988) found that children learn words from their first language when watching animated films with give tongue to-over narration. Such learning can be further improved when the films are subtitled, i.e., when voice is go with by orthographic information. Schilperoord, Groot, Son (2005). Researches shows that in countries like the Netherlands, where almost 20% of all programs on Dutch public TV and commercial televisions are foreign, learners are provided with opportunities to learn foreign languages, especially since the 1980s, when the teletext was introduced. Similarly, Koolstra and Beentjes (1999) maintain that in the small language communities, a considerable number of television programs are subtitled, causing and creating the opening move of v ocabulary acquisition not only in ones first language but also in his foreign languages learning process. Actually, the use of television programs and movie videos for educational purposes is not new. What researchers are interested in is how much learners can learn from films and television programs, and what factors influence the amount and kind of learning and how much. According to Reese Davie (1987) to parcel out this concern, researchers have examined features like message structure and format characteristics to identify those which best facilitate learning. Reese Davie report studies which suggest that visual illustrations are most effective when they are accompany by the script.Looking at socio-cultural factors attitude affecting in success of learning, however the combinations of traits explain the use that the learner makes of the available learning opportunities, all of which affect L2 learning. Wong-Fillmore (1991) indicates three main factors affecting L2 learning t he need to learn the second language, speakers of the target language who provide learners access to the language cultural openness, the social setting that brings learners and target-language speakers into contact frequently enough that makes language developments possible social openness, cultural openness, interaction between learners and target-language speakers. Clement (1980) also places great emphasis on the L2 learners motivation and the cultural milieu. In Clements model, primary motivational process, is defined as the net result of two opposing forcesintegrativeness minus revere of assimilation. Integrativeness refers to the desire to become an accepted share of the target group fear of assimilation refers to the fear of becoming completely like the other culture and losing ones native language and culture. Fear of assimilation along with fear of loss of ones native language and heritage may weaken L2 learning motivation, especially in the countries like Iran where peopl e are brightly high-minded of the history and heritage. Schumann (1986) suggests a model focusing on a cultural aspect of learning that he terms acculturation, that is, integration of the social and the psychological characteristics of learners with those of target-language speakers. to a lower place this heading, he classifies the social and affective factors cluster both as a single variable. According to Schumann, there are two factors in acculturation social integration psychological openness namely, sufficient contact and receptiveness between members of target-language and L2-learner groups.There are clearly a number of common features between the above models. They all include the effect of social context attitudes (integrative or instrumental) and acculturation. A problematic social context usually affects L2 learning negatively, especially when the learners are minorities learning L2 as the language of the controlling group like it seems to have the same role with Engli sh language as a semi-dominant language of the world especially in contrast with the diaphragm east languages. However, learners cognisance of the necessity for learning the L2 affects their success positively even if it symbolizes a conflict between the minority and the majority. L2 learners apply instrumental motivation, which operates as a meta-cognitive strategy whereby they persuade themselves to engage in L2 learning even though they have no liking for the language and the culture (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993 Bandura, 1986 Zimmerman, 1989).Looking to the movies and TV programs as a motivational tool in learning a language, and based on a justification of the outperformance of students exposed to subtitled video theories are grounded in research either on the single channel theory or on the multiple-channel theories. Multiple-channel theories hold an overview of the cue-summation, the between-channel redundancy theory, the capacity theory and dual-coding theory. Moreover, the schem a theory, the Krashens Comprehensible Input Hypothesis and the ACT model by Anderson are also evaluated in the following part, attending to how information processes and learning happens.2.2 Schema TheoryAccording to bartlett pear (1932), a schema is defined as a store of perceived sensory information in memory. He explains that schemata are formed and culturally regulated. As the number of schemata increases, one is able to recall an ever-larger amount of information in minimum time adapting new information to an appropriate schema allows one to remember new and important ideas (Rumelhart, 1981, 1984). However consistency with an existing schema leads to understanding and inconsistency generally causes problems in the comprehension process. Schemata can impede and slow down reading comprehension and memory details that are inconsistent with ones schema are deleted, or transformed, and rationalized to fit the existing schemata in the memory. On the other hand, schemata can also pla y a facilitating role when their details are consistent with the reading content in this case cognitive processing occurs quickly without full obstacles (Anderson, 1987 Van Dijk Kintsch, 1983). Researchers usually compare reading of culturally-familiar and unfamiliar stories by students from different ethnic backgrounds. Results have shown that students comprehension of cultural stories is a function of their cultural familiarity with these stories (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993, 1995 Abu-Rabia Feuerverger, 1996 Adams Collins, 1977 Anderson Gipe, 1983 Anderson, Reynolds, Schallert, Goetz, 1977 Baldwin et al., 1985 stand Eisterhold, 1983 Lipson, 1983 Paul, 1959 Reynolds, Taylor, Steffensen, Anderson, Shirley, 1982 Steffensen, Joag-Dev, Anderson, 1979 Yousef, 1968 Zegarra Zinger, 1981).However, learners awareness of the necessity for learning the L2 affects their success positively even if it symbolizes (according to Abu-Rabias above) a conflict between the minority and the majorit y. Second language learners apply instrumental motivation, which operates as mentioned like a meta-cognitive strategy whereby they persuade themselves to engage in L2 learning even though they have no liking for the language and the culture (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993 Bandura, 1986 Zimmerman, 1989).2.3 The hotshot telephone line Learning TheoryThe single channel theory is based on the principles that the human processing system has limited capacity in the primaeval noisome system (TraveBenefits of Subtitles in English LearningBenefits of Subtitles in English LearningCHAPTER IINTRODUCTION 1.1 BackgroundAll through the years, there has been an increasing emphasis on teaching English as an instrument for communication, and technology has played a critical function in facilitating authentic communication. The movement of language teaching objectives and practices has changed from the printed word and knowledge of language systems to the use and communicative value of the spoken language in the everyday setting (Vanderplank, 1993). In a sense, the efficacy of multimedia has drawn great consideration and is presumed, under the theory of adding an additional channel of media to send out a message, to significantly improve communication and comprehension (Dwyer, 1978). Multimedia technology (like TV, computers, networks, emails video cassette recorders (VCRS), compact disc ready-only memories (CD-ROMs) and interactive multimedia) aids the teaching technique of integrating real-life situations with the target language into the language classroom. In this meticulous setting, learners slowly expand their language acquisition by being exposed to the authentic environment of the target language.According to one of the most outstanding theories of second language acquisition, Krashen (1985) proposed that learners can learn a large amount of language unconsciously through ample comprehensible input. The Input Hypothesis, stated by Krashen, argues that the use of a target lang uage in real communicative environments and the stress on rich comprehensible input by exposing the learners to the target language in the classroom facilitate their language acquisition. In other words, language acquisition only happens when comprehensible input is suitably delivered. In this respect, language teachers struggle to employ a wide range of teaching techniques to make authentic situations and to promote learners language acquisition.Many researchers have presented strong evidence that multimedia (like computers, video, and TV) have helpful effects on language learning due to rich and authentic comprehensible input (Brett, 1995 Egbert Jessup, 1996 Khalid, 2001). Results of these studies demonstrated the significance of the use of multimedia develops learners language performance in reading, listening comprehension and vocabulary recognition. One survey study by the American Association of School Administrators showed that 94 percent of teachers and supervisors believe that technology has enhanced students learning considerably. Similarly, many English-as-a-Second Language (ESL) teachers concur that educational technology presents many possibilities for progressing students language proficiency, including their vocabulary, reading, listening, and speaking.Similarly, television programs and videos have created a place in the communication of information and are powerful apparatus in improving language teaching (Anderson Lorch, 1983). Both TV and videos communicate not only visually through pictures but also aurally throughout the spoken word, music and sound effects. The subtitle, a key role on television and videotapes, is coordinated with the dialogue or narration of the programs audio track, expanding comprehension and understanding of TV programs and videos. Lambert, Boehler and Sidoti (1981) have asserted that the constant general movement indicates that information coming through two input types (e.g., dialogue and subtitles) is more systema tically processed than if either dialogue or subtitles are presented alone. This result is in agreement with the dual-coding theory by Allan Paivio (1971), sustaining the usefulness of multiple-channel communication. In the same way, Hartmans (1961a) findings support the between-channel redundancy theory which suggested that when information is redundant between two input sources (e.g., dialog and subtitles), comprehension will be superior than when the information is coming through one input form, (e.g., dialog). He also gave a description of redundant information as identical information from the visual and verbal stimuli. In this respect, Hartman completed that the benefit of the multiple-channel learning system is this information coming from two information sources is more comprehensible than that through one. Information input through different sensory channels supplies receivers with additional stimuli reinforcement to guarantee that more complete learning happens. More expli citly, the additional stimuli reinforcement helps out learners in systematizing and structuring the incoming information.However, a contrasting theory, the single channel theory proposed by Broadbent (1958), states that human can only process information throughout one channel at a time. This theory assumes that the decline of learning takes place if the information is received through two or more sources. The learning is delayed when the multiple-channel presentation of information is used in the teaching-learning process. Along with this contentious viewpoint between the single and the multiple-channel presentation, an awareness of and interest in the use of multimedia resources have been increasing, like the presentation of subtitled materials.Today, language learning has turned out to be more available by implementing multimedia with spoken information and full visual context, such as subtitles. For instance, subtitled videos representing words and pictures in an aural and in a visual form are more probable to activate both coding systems in the processing than words or pictures alone. The dual-coding theory proposed by Paivio (1971) suggests that when pictures are added to the meaning, the number of signals connected with the message increases. Viewers then will be more probable to keep the message in mind. Therefore, the results of the past research appear to sustain the aspect that the use of subtitles causes multi-sensory processing, interacting with audio, video and print mechanisms. These information input foundations get the process of language learning better, improve the comprehension of the content, and increase vocabulary by looking at the subtitled words in meaningful and stimulating circumstances. In addition, a lot of teachers consider subtitles shed some new light on a better way of using various multimedia in the ESL classroom. When subtitled technology appeared more than 15 years ago, many educators quickly saw value in exploiting its pote ntial in helping students process language in a different way and effectively by means of the printed word. (Goldman, 1996 Holobow, Lambert, Sayegh, 1984 Koskinen, Wilson, Gambrell, Neuman, 1993 Parks, 1994 Vanderplank, 1993).1.1.1 SubtitleSubtitles, which are English written subtitles on instructional English-as-second-language (ESL) videos in this study, are the written version of the audio constituent that permits dialogue, music, narration and sound effects to be shown at the bottom of the screen on most televisions. There are two kinds of subtitles explained in general terms the open subtitle and the closed subtitle. Closed subtitles refer to the subtitles that are not automatically visible to the viewer however can be viewed by turning on through use of a remote control or an electronic subtitle decoder. By contrast, open subtitles are visible to all viewers without turning them on with a remote control. Subtitling is not only the main function of the TV but a positive funct ion of video tapes. Video tapes offer subtitling by those who specialize in computer workstations. To make subtitles visible, an electronic subtitle decoder is obligatory, that is easily attached to a television set. Although it is not available in some areas of the world, subtitling technology is broadly accessible and draws great attention in the United States. In 1990, the U. S. Congress passed the Television Decoder Circuitry Act requiring that all new televisions, thirteen inches or larger, be prepared with subtitle decoder circuitry. The function of the decoder circuitry is to receive, decode, and show closed subtitles from cable, DVD signals and videotape appropriately. With reference to this regulation, the consumer is no longer required to pay for a separate decoder, when in possession of an applicable TV set. Therefore, thousands of people in the U.S. have access to subtitles without any trouble by pushing the button on the remote controls (National Subtitleing Institute, 1989). However, available access of subtitles on foreign film videos is still restricted in other countries, such as Taiwan and Japan, where external subtitle decoders are necessary for viewing.Subtitleing was devised initially for the hearing impaired. The statistics on the number of decoders sold confirm that more than half were bought for the hearing impaired who assert that decoders are helpful to them. Increasingly, the use of subtitles has also augmented among the non-native speakers who are motivated to improve their language learning. A study by Hofmeister, Menlove, and Thorkildsen (1992) discovered that 40 percent of people other than the hearing impaired buy the decoders, such as foreign students. To be explicit, the motive for this phenomenon is that subtitles show words in a motivating atmosphere where the audio, video and print media help viewers comprehend the unknown words and meanings in their context. However, subtitles have a great impact on comprehension improveme nt of specific TV programs and improve English language learning progressively.For the benefits of the multimedia approach, ESL programs began to incorporate subtitled materials into the curricula to help ESL students language learning. The focus on teaching techniques and on means of optimizing students comprehension of the second language has been of great concern through this multimedia. Koskinen, Wilson, Gambrell, and Neuman (1993) stated that the subtitled video is a new and promising approach for improving students vocabulary, reading comprehension, and motivation. Other researches have been conducted to inspect whether subtitled TV and video improve or obstruct students learning. The results have indicated that subtitled TV and videos are helpful for the hearing impaired, ESL students and disabled students (Bean Wilson, 1989 Borras Lafayette, 1994 Ellsworth, 1992 Garza, 1991 Goldman, 1996 Goldman Goldman, 1988 Markham, 1989 Nugent, 1983 Parlato, 1985 Price, 1983 Vanderplan k, 1991 Webb, Vanderplank, Parks, 1994 Wilson Koskinen, 1986).Despite a large number of studies suggesting/demonstrating the benefits of the use of subtitles for the hearing-impaired, language learners, and disabled students, similar studies on the use of English subtitles in English teaching are still limited in Iran. Thus, there is great scope for additional examination into the potential use of subtitled television videos to enhance language teaching to English-as-Foreign-Language (EFL) students. The design of this research elaborates mainly on the language learning achievements.This study adds to the aforementioned to investigate the exposure of target language input to students through the presentation subtitled videos. This research focuses on the absence or presence of 10 English subtitled ESL instructional video episodes for a period of five weeks as a primary variable in an experiment to help determine the conditions for the improvement of Iranian college students learnin g English as a foreign language in Iran.1.2 Statement of the ProblemMany people in Iran have problems when it comes to communicating with foreigners in English. In addition, to get information from the Internet, having a fair amount of English knowledge is required. That makes accessing information a problem for those with limited English language proficiency. In addition, those Iranian students who wish to study abroad, language is the main problem since they have studied in Farsi for all their educational life, and thus adapting to a non-Persian environment is consequently very difficult. Students in Iran, start learning the Basic English at their secondary schools, however the curriculum structure, is based on teaching grammar rather than oral skills therefore, most students oral communication skills are limited. .Moloney (1995) states that the emergence of English in the global market has resulted in the current ardor for learning English in developing countries. The need for En glish in Iran is unique. English is not only a required course for Iranian students, but also required and tested as part of major entrance examinations in Iran. These mentioned issues are going to be considered in proposing subtitles in videos and English learning movie solution.1.3 Objectives of the StudyThe purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of subtitled videos in enhancing university students language learning in Iran English as a foreign language (EFL). In the study, the term language learning represents two types of performances. The first is students content comprehension of a particular video episode, as evaluated by a Content Specific Tests (CST) and the second is to investigate the learners vocabulary acquisition.1.4 Significance of the StudyTeachers professional development activities always focus on those types of teaching strategies that help students improve along with their path of learning process. As the research has been designed to discover the effectiveness of presenting subtitles on the movies on vocabulary acquisition and content comprehension, it would be of much significance if confirmed that this strategy works. Generally speaking, it can also been resulted that the finding of this research also could be added to the body of language teaching, learning and use of multimedia technology knowledge. The findings of this study can be share with the curriculum designers, EFL/ ESL teachers for the technology to be implemented in the classroom, materials developers for English teaching1.5 HypothesesThis study focuses on English language learners performance on the Content-Specific Tests (CST) of vocabulary, and content comprehension of videos with and without subtitles. The researcher tested each of the following null hypotheses as she controls the initial differences of the participants in their general English proficiency.Ho 1 There is no significant difference on the scores of the content comprehension subtest of the CST between subjects watching videos with subtitles and those watching videos without subtitles.Ho 2 There is no significant difference on the scores in the content vocabulary subtest of the CST between subjects watching videos with subtitles and those watching videos without subtitles. 1.6 Research Question1. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their vocabulary significantly?2. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their content comprehension significantly?3. Does presence of English subtitles on the videos help learners improve their English language proficiency significantly?1.7 Definition of the TermsThe definitions are given here to make sure uniformity and understanding of these terms throughout the study.1.7.1 SubtitleSubtitle is the spoken words designed for the deaf and hearing-impaired people helping them read what they cannot hear. The terms subtitles and subtitles are interchangeably used in this researc h and are described as the translations of the spoken words to the written with the identical language shown at the bottom of the screen.1.7.2 Closed SubtitleA subtitle of spoken words viewed by a special decoding device installed in the television set or a special decoder machine.1.7.3 Open SubtitleA subtitle of spoken words that always is printed at the bottom of the screen.1.7.4 Content-Specific Test (CST)An instrument designed by the researcher for this study used to measure learners overall comprehension in terms of vocabulary and content comprehension of a particular video segment. The CST includes the two subtests vocabulary and content comprehension.1.7.5 Content VocabularyThe vocabulary that comes into sight from the particular video piece viewed by the subjects1.7.6 Content ComprehensionContent comprehension that focuses mainly on the whole story script and test viewers comprehension of the particular information shown in the video1.8 Limitation of the StudyThe researcher encountered difficulty in access to the samples of all Iranian population of EFL learners since the country is very huge and the numbers of English learners are so many. It was very hard to control teachers inside-class activities based on the methodologies presented to them. Non-generalizability of the findings to all English learners, especially ESL learners is another which is because the research is conducted in an EFL (Iran) context. The last but not the least limitation is the material choice since there are various types of videos. Therefore, the researcher had to restrict the video to an instructional video, connect with English since it is both with and without subtitle available as well as being suitable for the proficiency level of the participants.1.9 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDYThis study is divided into five chapters. Chapter I introduces the foundation for this research, the purpose of the study, and definitions of key terms used throughout the study to diminish potentia l misunderstanding.Chapter II presents a review of the literature of the use of subtitles. It starts with a theoretical review of the cognitive information processing relevant to the single channel theory and the multiple-channel theory, with focus on the cue-summation theory, the between-channel redundancy theory, the dual-coding theory and the capacity theory. It then keeps on with a discussion of the schemata theory, the Comprehensible Input Hypothesis by Krashen and the ACT Model by Anderson. Subsequently, the relevant major research on subtitles for the hearing-impaired, disabled, normal reading ability, and language learners is offered.Chapter III outlines the method of hypotheses testing formulated in Chapter I. It also includes the research design, followed by a description of the subjects in this study, the treatment materials employed, the testing instruments, the data collection procedure, and the details of the data analysis applied.In Chapter IV, the analyses are perfor med to reveal the research hypotheses are explained in detail, with the quantitative results of these analyses and an interpretation of the results.The final chapter, Chapter V, summarizes the findings of the study in light of research hypotheses and discusses the performance of the subjects and the results of the analyses shown in Chapter IV. The conclusion interprets the effect of subtitled videos on EFL students language learning in relation to their listening and reading comprehension and their vocabulary. To synthesize the conclusion of this study, pedagogical implications, the limitations of the study and further research are presented.CHAPTER II 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Cognitive Processing TheoriesIn many communities around the world, competence in two, or more, languages is an issue of considerable personal, socio-cultural, economic, and political significance. (Fred Genesee McGill University, WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT BILINGUAL EDUCTION FOR MAJORITY LANGUAGE STUDENTS). Histo rical documents indicate that individuals and whole communities around the world have been compelled to learn other languages for centuries and they have done so for a variety of reasons such as language contact, colonization, trade, education through a colonial language (e.g., Latin, Greek), intermarriage, among others (Lewis, 1977). The term learning has been considered in different ways by psychologists throughout history. Some behaviorists believe that learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of experience or practice. In addition Iranian students consider the radical-changing world as a situation of globalization that makes them study English as their second language and also a key to main language of scholarship. Thus Iranian government obliged students to start studying courses in English from early primary school through to university over a course of about 7 years. Despite this, reports show poor linguistic results thus there is a requi rement for an in-depth analysis of the teaching methods to understand the reasons for failure.Analyzing the process of effective learning, usually this is divided into two different components, first is individual interest in a topic and the second part is situational interest (Hidi, 1990). Individual interest is said to be the degree to which the learner or the reader is interested in a certain topic, subject area, or any special activity (Prenzel, 1988 Schiefele, 1990). Situational interest is explained as an emotional state aroused by situational stimuli (Anderson, Shirey, Wilson, Fielding, 1987 Hidi, 1990). The literature shows that the individual interest of the reader learner has a positive influence on text comprehension (Anderson, Mason, Shimey, 1984 Asher, 1980 Baldwin, Peleg-Bruckner, McClintock, 1985 Belloni Jongsma, 1978 Bernstein, 1955 Entin Klare, 1985 Osako Anders, 1983 Renninger, 1988 Stevens, 1982).However these researchers defined individual interests as the relatively long-term orientation of an individual towards a type of object, activity, or area of knowledge. This is why exciting tools such as movies seem to have positive effect on learning. (Schiefele, 1987). Schiefele also believes that individual interest is itself a domain-specific or topic-specific motivational characteristic of personality, composed of feeling-related and value-related valences. Then, individual interest is naturally generated by a text that constitutes a feeling of enjoyment or involvement. Individual interest motivates the learner to become involved in reading the specific subject matter.Fransson (1977) indicated that students who were interested in a special topic exhibited and showed deeper processing of a related text. Using free recall and extensive interviews, Fransson found that high-interest subjects made more connections between both different parts of the text and also between what was read and prior knowledge or personal experience. Benware and De ci (1984) and Grolnick and Ryan (1987) arrived at almost the same results, demonstrating that topic-interested We shall also call it intrinsically motivated students exhibited markedly greater conceptual comprehension of text content in contrast with non-interested and extrinsically motivated students.The process of the language learning is seen as a complicate cognitive skill. According to Neisser (1967), cognitive psychology considers that all information passes a process through which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, focused, stored, recovered and used.Gardner and Lambert (1972) are said to be pioneers in the investigation of socio-psychological aspects of second-language learning. They conducted numerous studies on the relationships of attitudes and social-context to the process of learning a second language. They proposed a distinction between these two models integrative and instrumental motivation. The former is defined as a full identification by the learner with the target-language group and readiness to be identified as part of it. The latter indicates interest in learning L2 only as a tool to procure a better future through social mobility in this case the learner does not identify with the target-language speakers. However integrative motivation is often considered more likely to lead to success in second language learning than instrumental motivation. Banduras (1986) and Zimmermans (1989).In particular, some of cognitive theorists believe that information-processing theory has the concept of capacity theory within itself. They suggest that the human capacity for learning a language is not regarded as an apart and disconnected from cognitive processes. According to Beck and McKeown (1991), most research on vocabulary leaning has focused on written text, probably because vocabulary research has developed under the umbrella of reading research. Having this fact in mind that arousing interests causes effectives in learning, is supported by a number of studies which have clearly indicated that television programs and movie videos may also be used as a motivational tool to affect teaching techniques in the field of language learning, especially in the area of vocabulary learning. For instance, Rice and Woodsmall (1988) found that children learn words from their first language when watching animated films with voice-over narration. Such learning can be further improved when the films are subtitled, i.e., when voice is accompanied by orthographic information. Schilperoord, Groot, Son (2005). Researches shows that in countries like the Netherlands, where almost 20% of all programs on Dutch public TV and commercial televisions are foreign, learners are provided with opportunities to learn foreign languages, especially since the 1980s, when the teletext was introduced. Similarly, Koolstra and Beentjes (1999) maintain that in the small language communities, a considerable number of television programs are subtitled, causing and creating the possibility of vocabulary acquisition not only in ones first language but also in his foreign languages learning process. Actually, the use of television programs and movie videos for educational purposes is not new. What researchers are interested in is how much learners can learn from films and television programs, and what factors influence the amount and kind of learning and how much. According to Reese Davie (1987) to address this concern, researchers have examined features like message structure and format characteristics to identify those which best facilitate learning. Reese Davie report studies which suggest that visual illustrations are most effective when they are accompanied by the script.Looking at socio-cultural factors attitude affecting in success of learning, however the combinations of traits explain the use that the learner makes of the available learning opportunities, all of which affect L2 learning. Wong-Fillmore (1991) indicates three main factors affecting L2 learning the need to learn the second language, speakers of the target language who provide learners access to the language cultural openness, the social setting that brings learners and target-language speakers into contact frequently enough that makes language developments possible social openness, cultural openness, interaction between learners and target-language speakers. Clement (1980) also places great emphasis on the L2 learners motivation and the cultural milieu. In Clements model, primary motivational process, is defined as the net result of two opposing forcesintegrativeness minus fear of assimilation. Integrativeness refers to the desire to become an accepted member of the target group fear of assimilation refers to the fear of becoming completely like the other culture and losing ones native language and culture. Fear of assimilation along with fear of loss of ones native language and heritage may weaken L2 learning motivation, especially in the cou ntries like Iran where people are brightly proud of the history and heritage. Schumann (1986) suggests a model focusing on a cultural aspect of learning that he terms acculturation, that is, integration of the social and the psychological characteristics of learners with those of target-language speakers. Under this heading, he classifies the social and affective factors cluster both as a single variable. According to Schumann, there are two factors in acculturation social integration psychological openness namely, sufficient contact and receptiveness between members of target-language and L2-learner groups.There are clearly a number of common features between the above models. They all include the effect of social context attitudes (integrative or instrumental) and acculturation. A problematic social context usually affects L2 learning negatively, especially when the learners are minorities learning L2 as the language of the dominant group like it seems to have the same role with English language as a semi-dominant language of the world especially in contrast with the middle east languages. However, learners awareness of the necessity for learning the L2 affects their success positively even if it symbolizes a conflict between the minority and the majority. L2 learners apply instrumental motivation, which operates as a meta-cognitive strategy whereby they persuade themselves to engage in L2 learning even though they have no liking for the language and the culture (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993 Bandura, 1986 Zimmerman, 1989).Looking to the movies and TV programs as a motivational tool in learning a language, and based on a justification of the outperformance of students exposed to subtitled video theories are grounded in research either on the single channel theory or on the multiple-channel theories. Multiple-channel theories hold an overview of the cue-summation, the between-channel redundancy theory, the capacity theory and dual-coding theory. Moreover, the schema theory, the Krashens Comprehensible Input Hypothesis and the ACT model by Anderson are also evaluated in the following part, attending to how information processes and learning happens.2.2 Schema TheoryAccording to Bartlett (1932), a schema is defined as a store of perceived sensory information in memory. He explains that schemata are formed and culturally regulated. As the number of schemata increases, one is able to recall an ever-larger amount of information in minimum time adapting new information to an appropriate schema allows one to remember new and important ideas (Rumelhart, 1981, 1984). However consistency with an existing schema leads to understanding and inconsistency generally causes problems in the comprehension process. Schemata can impede and slow down reading comprehension and memory details that are inconsistent with ones schema are deleted, or transformed, and rationalized to fit the existing schemata in the memory. On the other hand, schemata can also play a fac ilitating role when their details are consistent with the reading content in this case cognitive processing occurs quickly without serious obstacles (Anderson, 1987 Van Dijk Kintsch, 1983). Researchers usually compare reading of culturally-familiar and unfamiliar stories by students from different ethnic backgrounds. Results have shown that students comprehension of cultural stories is a function of their cultural familiarity with these stories (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993, 1995 Abu-Rabia Feuerverger, 1996 Adams Collins, 1977 Anderson Gipe, 1983 Anderson, Reynolds, Schallert, Goetz, 1977 Baldwin et al., 1985 Carrell Eisterhold, 1983 Lipson, 1983 Paul, 1959 Reynolds, Taylor, Steffensen, Anderson, Shirley, 1982 Steffensen, Joag-Dev, Anderson, 1979 Yousef, 1968 Zegarra Zinger, 1981).However, learners awareness of the necessity for learning the L2 affects their success positively even if it symbolizes (according to Abu-Rabias above) a conflict between the minority and the majority. S econd language learners apply instrumental motivation, which operates as mentioned like a meta-cognitive strategy whereby they persuade themselves to engage in L2 learning even though they have no liking for the language and the culture (Abu-Rabia, 1991, 1993 Bandura, 1986 Zimmerman, 1989).2.3 The Single Channel Learning TheoryThe single channel theory is based on the principles that the human processing system has limited capacity in the central nervous system (Trave

A Blood Brain Pharmacokinetic Model

A bloodline Brain Pharmacokinetic ModelPharmacokinetics, an emerging field in BioPhysics and chemistry is the study of the time variation of do do drugss and metabolite aims in various tissues and fluids of the body. Compartment flummoxs are used to interpret data. In our problem, we consider a simple blood-brain compartment model as shown in the figure belowk21Input d(t) k12Kwhere, Compartment 1 = BloodCompartment 2 = BrainThis model is made such that it can attention to help estimate venereal infection strengths of an orally administered antidepressant drug. The rate of movement of drug from compartment i to compartment j is denoted by the rate constant kji and the rate at which the drug is removed from the blood is represented by the rate constant K. A pharmaceutical company must deal with many factors like dosage strengths that support out aid a physician in determining a patient ofs dosage in order to maintain the right concentration take aims and also minimizing bili ousness and other side effects (Brannan 208).If we assume that the drug is rapidly absorbed into the blood stream after it is introduced into the stomach, a mathematical representation of the dosage will be of a periodic square wave given as followsBased on our model and the equations we can solve the problems1. If we permit xj(t) be the nitty-gritty of drug in milligrams in compartment j, j =1,2. The mass balance law states(i)Using the mass balance law and the figure, we findSystem in Blood compartmentSystem in Brain compartmentFrom (i) and the above equations, we can find the following(ii)The systems above are the rates of drug over time in the compartments.2. If we let ci(t) denote the concentration of the drug and Vi denote the apparent volume of distribution in compartment i, we can use the relation ci = xi/Vi in the equations of system (ii) to obtain(iii)Dividing the above systems by V1 and V2 respectively, we get 3. Assuming x1(0) =0 and x2(0) =0, and the various parameters listed belowk21k12KV1V2Tb0.29/h0.31/h0.16/h6L0.25L1hand with the numerical simulation program Maple , we can practise simulations of the system with given parameters to recommend two different encapsulated dosage strengths A=RTb.= Guidelines to use for recommendation of drug dosage1) Target concentration level in the brain should be kept as close as possible between levels 10 mg/L and 30 mg/L and concentration hesitation should not exceed 25% of the average of the steady-state response.2) Lower frequency of administration (once every 24 hours or once every 12 hours is best). Once every 9.5 hours is unacceptable and multiple doses are acceptable (i.e. taking two capsules every 4 hours)depth psychology Drug usage of more than 4 times per day is unacceptable which makes maximum allowable dose to be 3, making 3 doses at 8 hours interval per day the best choice. We can then simulate from Tp = 8 to Tp = 12, 16 and 24.From the numerical simulations obtained from Maple, we obtain the foll owing dataTp(h)R (mg/h)Steady-state varianceComments849.04 mg/L to 12.5 mg/L down the stairs effective remediation concentration8511.7 mg/L to 15.5 mg/L8614.4 mg/L to 19.2 mg/L8819.2 mg/L to 25.3 mg/L8921.1 mg/L to 27.9 mg/L81023.2 mg/L to 31.2 mg/LAbove maximum therapeutic concentration12510.9 mg/L to 6.5 mg/LBelow minimum therapeutic concentration1268.6 mg/L to 14.1 mg/LBelow minimum therapeutic concentration1278.32 mg/L to 15.1 mg/LBelow minimum therapeutic concentration12810.6 mg/L to 18.3 mg/L121013.2 mg/L to 22.8 mg/L121317.9 mg/L to 30 mg/L16109.11 mg/L to 19.5 mg/LSharp fluctuations Below minimum therapeutic concentration161210.7 mg/L to 23.5 mg/LSharp fluctuations.161311.5 mg/L to 25.4 mg/LSharp fluctuations.161412.5 mg/L to 27.3 mg/LSharp fluctuations.161614.3mg/L 31.4mg/LSharp fluctuations Above maximum therapeutic concentration24156.19mg/L 24mg/LSharp fluctuations Below minimum therapeutic concentration24208.52mg/L 32mg/LSharp fluctuations Above maximum therapeutic concentrationObtained corresponding Graphs from Maple and their respective Tp and R values are listed belowTp = 8, R = 4 Tp = 8, R = 5Tp = 8, R = 6 Tp = 8, R = 8Tp = 8, R = 9 Tp = 8, R = 10Tp = 12, R = 6 Tp = 12, R = 8Tp = 12, R = 10 Tp = 12, R = 12Tp = 12, R = 13Tp=16, R=10 Tp=16, R=12Tp=16, R=13 Tp=16, R=14Tp=16, R=16Tp=24, R=15 Tp=24, R=20Some CommentsWhen Tp= 8 and R = 4, the recommended dosage is below minimum therapeutic concentration extend.When Tp= 8 and R = 10 , the recommended dosage is above maximum therapeutic concentration range.When Tp= 8 and R = 5 to 7, the recommended dosage is below effective therapeutic concentration range.When Tp= 8 and R = 4, the recommended dosage is below therapeutic concentration range.When Tp= 12 and R = 5 to 7, the recommended dosage is below minimum therapeutic concentration range.When Tp= 16 and R = 12 to 14, sharp fluctuation is seen.When Tp= 24 and R = 20, sharp fluctuation is seen and the recommended dosage is below therapeutic concent ration range.=Calculation and Analysis of dosage strength ANow we can calculate the dosage frequency for the remaining dosage frequency intervals of 8 hours and 12 hours(8 hour interval) (R being from 5 mg/h to 9 mg/h)A = RTb = 5 mg/h x 1h= 5 mgA = RTb = 9 mg/h x 1h= 9 mg(12 hour interval) (R being from 8 mg/h to 13 mg/h)A = RTb = 8 mg/h x 1h = 8 mgA = RTb = 13 mg/h x 1h= 13 mg4. From the simulation, we can know that it is best to skip the dose than to try to catch up and double the dose and ultimately overdose from the figures illustrated. If we assume the patient is at a 12 hour interval dose frequency, and R being 10mg/h, the following scenarios can be phoneyScenario missed a dosage and skipped Scenario absent a dosage catching upAnalysis From the scenarios simulations above, we can have a clear picture of what will go through the patients drug level.In the 1st scenario, where the patient missed a dosage and skipped, the concentration level in the brain of the patient stays wi thin the recommended level.In the 2nd scenario, where the patient tries to catch up, the drug level will cross the recommended level and that also by a lot. Thus, skipping the dose is better than to catch up overdosing the drug level resulting in fatality.5. Supposing the drug can be packaged in a timed-release form so that Tb = 8 hours and R also adjusted likewise, we get the following data from the MapleTp(h)R(mg/h)Steady-state varianceReasons120.7510.4mg/L 13mg/L12113.9mg/L 17mg/L121.521mg/L 25.5mg/L121.7524.5mg/L 29.8mg/L12228.1mg/L 34mg/LAbove maximum therapeutic concentration1619mg/L 14.3mg/LBelow minimum therapeutic concentration161.2511.2mg/L 17.7mg/L161.513.6mg/L 21.3mg/L16218.3mg/L 28.4mg/L162.2520.5mg/L 31.8mg/LAbove maximum therapeutic concentration162.522.8mg/L 35.4mg/LAbove maximum therapeutic concentration2428.7mg/L 23.3mg/LSharp fluctuation242.259.86mg/L 25.9mg/LSharp fluctuation242.510.9mg/L 29mg/LSharp fluctuationT=12, R=0.75T=12, R=1T=12, R=1.5T=12, R=1.75T=12, R=2T=16, R=1 T=16, R=1.25T=16, R=1.5 T=16, R=2T=16, R=2.25 T=16, R=2.5T=24, R=2 T=24, R=2.5Analysis If the drug can be packaged in a timed release form so that Tb = 8 and R is also adjusted likewise, we perform the simulations for the dosage of interval of a 12 hour frequency. We observe zero sharp fluctuations. Every graph seems to produce the concentration level within the recommended range of 10mg/L to 30mg/L when R is between 0.75 mg/h and 1.75 mg/h.=Calculation and Analysis of radical dosage strength AWe can calculate the new strength level of the drugs as(12 hour frequency interval) A=RTb = 0.75 mg/h * 8h = 6mgA=RTb = 1.75 mg/h * 8h = 14mgSame analysis can be performed for 16 hour frequency interval. We observe zero sharp fluctuations and every graph produce the concentration level within the recommended range of 10mg/L to 30mg/L R being in between 1.25mg/h and 2mg/h.=Calculation and Analysis of new dosage strength AWe can calculate the new strength level of the d rugs as(16 hour frequency interval) A = RTb=1.25 mg/h * 8h = 10mg A = RTb=2.00 mg/h * 8h = 16mgThus, this changes our recommendation.Simulation Program Maple We used the following code and simulated varying R and P values.g =t piecewise(0 DEplot(diff(x(t), t) = (1/6)*g(t)+(1/6)*(.31*.25)*y(t)-x(t)*(.29+.16), diff(y(t), t) = (.29*6)*x(t)/(.25)-.31*y(t), x(t), y(t), t = 0 .. 40, x = 0 .. .50, y = 0 .. 80, scene = t, y, x(0) = 0, y(0) = 0, stepsize = .1, color = blue)

Attitudes Towards Euthanasia | Literature Review

Attitudes Towards Euthanasia Literature ReviewIntroductionThis literature review is base upon peoples attitudes towards Euthanasia, which comes from the Greek meaning good death and in English means the killing of one psyche by a nonher to relieve the suffering of that person and Physician aid self-annihilation (PAS), which is described as a medical professional aiding a person who is incapable of the run themselves to commit suicide, (NHS, 2010). For this literature review, a literature search was performed using the Cochrane library, Science Direct, EBSCOhost and S historic period using the key wordsAssisted suicideEuthanasiaOpinionsAttitude unite Kingdom universalRight to DieAssisted DyingMost of these words (with the exception of Assisted Suicide and Assisted Dying) were apply in each of the search engines on an individual basis and also white plagued to form directences, however, the only electronic databases that gave this search the information it required was Sage. This provided a substantial amount of journals, a lot of the differents purposed were subscription establish or a fee was required, but from the free to single-valued function information boardinal of the approximately relevant to the subject I beseeched to perform the review on were chosen. The two accounts were chosen from stares and studies performed in the United Kingdom, because it was decided to research what the thoughts and feelings of medical professionals were in a place where this practice was presently illegal. Use in the literature search, but this was difficult to come by. The titles of the three journals are Legalisation of Euthanasia or Physician Assisted Suicide wad of Doctors Attitudes, and Opinions of the Legalised of Physician Assisted Suicide. Despite not inputting the word physician into the search engine, a lot of the searches came up with types of journals which mention this anyway.This review will critically evaluate the information in the journal s and will be compared with each other, discussing the disadvantages of the watchs and the advantages. The review will also include the various research methods used in the research.The Literature ReviewThe starting line paper reviewed is in English by Clive Seale, PhD, from the Centre for Health Sciences, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, London and is called The legalisation of Euthanasia or Physician-Assisted Suicide Survey of Doctors Attitudes. The communications protocol was to determine what reinstates opinions ab let out the legalisation of medically help last (which includes the terms, euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide (PAS)) were and this was done in comparison with the opinions of the general public of the UK. The methodology was to hop out out structured questionnaires with a series of questions using qualitative methods and then analyse the results in a quantitative manner. In 2007, Binleys database (http//www.binleys.com) was used to s destination questionnaires to 8857 shortly working medical practitioners all e very(prenominal)place the UK, this was broken down into 2829 (7%) GPs, 443 (43%) neurologists, 836 (21% of these were doctors) specialists in the solicitude of the elderly, 462 (54% of these were also doctors) specialists in palliative medicine and 4287 workers in other hospital based specialities. This is quite a large sample to use and covers a wide range of specialities. It is not clear in what month in 2007 these questionnaires were sent out but follow-up letters were sent to non-respondents between November 2007 and April 2008 to enquire as to why they did not respond, in which 66 doctors in all responded with the most common reason being lack of era to complete the survey. Overall the response rate was 42.1% with specialists in palliative medicine being the most reactive with 67.3% of people returning their questionnaire, along with specialists in the care of the elderly (48.1%) neurologists ( 42.9%) other hospital specialties (40.1%) and GPs (39.3%). Despite the large sample of people, 42.1% of replies are quite disappointing, although it is a truly emotive subject.The questions consisted of personal questions such as age, g block offer, grade, ethnic origin, and speciality of the respondent and, on average, the number of deaths attended. They were all asked four questions about their attitude towards euthanasia and assisted suicide, in order to obtain the questionnaire in full the author of the survey invited people to contact him. An email was sent Appendix (a) and a reply was received the next day Appendix (b). Previous surveys regarding this subject were performed in the Netherlands, Oregon (USA) and Belgium majority support from the medical profession has been important in passing permissive legislation in these countries.The keywords used in this lead were assisted anxious(p) euthanasia physician-assisted suicide right to die and terminal care. The distribution of questionnaires meant that the methodology used was right as it was discreet and reached a lot of people in a short amount of time, the only danger with this method was that the medical professionals did not have to respond which was shown in the return response of 42.1% there was no financial or other incentive as this would go against all good considerations. Ethical approval for this study was granted by the South East query Ethics Committee. The results showed that those who were specialists in palliative medicine were to a greater extent opposed to euthanasia or PAS being legalised than the other specialities, although this could be down to the higher response rate in this area. Those that expressed their religious beliefs were more opposed to the legalisation also. The study showed that the most widely held view was that British doctors do not support legalising assisted dying in either euthanasia or PAS this differs from the British loving Attitudes (BSA) survey which has tracked changes in public opinion since 1984, and is the most consistent source of data (http//www.britsocat.com).The second paper reviewed is Survey of doctors opinions of the legalisation of physician assisted suicide by William Lee, Annabel Price, Lauren Rayner and Matthew Hotopf from the Institute of Psychiatry. Kings College, London. The protocol is similar to the first paper in that they were looking at practitioners opinions on euthanasia and PAS. The article begins by look that there is wide support among the general public for assisted dying but not so much for those who care for the dying. The methodology was to send out a postal survey of a 1000 senior consultants and medical practitioners were selected randomly from the commercially available Informa Healthcare Medical Directory (2005/2006), retired doctors were excluded from the survey. Questionnaire were sent firstly in February 2007, 12 work weeks later, in may, non-respondents were contacted and then six weeks later they were telephoned, it was discovered that that some of the possible contributors had moved, died or retired. This information was ad unspoilted to take this into account. The authors completed separate univariable (a wizard variable) and multivariable (containing more than one variable) predicting the outcomes using polytomous methods which would allow two outcomes to be predicted together.The response rate to the survey was 50% once the exclusions were accounted for, which is higher than the first paper and unflurried gave a lot of date to work with. Included in the survey the authors included a brief outline of the Assisted Dying for the Terminally feverous Bill (2006) 32% of the doctors who responded had read some of the Bill. Gender, speciality and old age in post had no effect on opposition or support for a new law. An interesting point noted is that the views of doctors who do not care for the dying tally with the general publics view, so there is some correlatio n there with 66% of those who never cared for the dying supporting a change in the law. The outcome of interest for the authors was to what level practitioners agreed with the statement The law should not be changed to allow assisted suicide.A second outcome of interest was the level of agreement with the statement I would be prepared to prescribe a calamitous drug to a terminally ill enduring who was suffering unbearably, were that course of action to become legal. (Hotopf, et. al. 20073). The findings of this questionnaire can be found in Appendix (c). twain of these questions were determined using five-point Likert-type scales, used commonly in questionnaires, following this were converted into three-point scales comprising of agree, neither agree nor disagree and disagree with a change in law. The survey shows that senior doctors are split abut their views regarding a change in the law fewer are in favour than the general public in the United Kingdom. These findings have been noted in the US, as well as Canada, Finland and the Netherlands as well as the UK. Ethical permission was gained from the Institute of Psychiatry, Kings College London Research Ethics Committee.Comparisons and ConclusionsThere are many comparisons between the two papers, for example, twain sent out questionnaires to their target mathematical group, who were specialists in certain fields. However, the first paper surveyed over double the amount of people the second paper did but got less replies. Both studies were done in the akin year but it is difficult to narrate who started theirs first as the date for first paper is unknown other than it was performed in 2007. The second survey is far more in depth that the first one, and it suggests that qualitative research is needed to understand doctors views better whereas the first paper did not state which the preferred method was. The second paper suggests that doctors who oppose a change in the law comes from an over-optimistic cre dence in their ability to relieve the suffering of the dying. (Hotopf, et.al. 2007). It is possible to argue against this though and the knowledge and experience of longanimouss who are dying influences views about PAS. Both compare the attitudes between the general public and the specialist doctors and note a big difference between them. On the whole both papers conducted a thorough and precise survey but there is room for foster research and investigation.ReferencesHotopf, L, Lee, W, Price, A, and Rayner, L. (2009) Survey of Doctors Opinions of the Legalisation of Physician-Assisted Suicide, Bio-Med Central, Online, Available from http//www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1472-6939-10-2.pdf Accessed twenty-second April 2010.NHS (2010) Euthanasia and assisted suicide Online, London. Available from http//www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Euthanasiaandassistedsuicide/Pages/Definition.aspx Accessed 22nd April 2010.Seale, C. (2009) Legalisation of Euthanasia or Physician-Assisted Suicide Survey of Doctors Attitudes, Palliative Medicine, Online, Available from http//pmj.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/23/3/205 Accessed 22nd April 2010.Papers used in Literature SearchHotopf, L, Lee, W, Price, A, and Rayner, L. Survey of Doctors Opinions of theLegalisation of Physician-Assisted Suicide.Seale, C Legalisation of euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide survey of doctors attitudes.Appendix(a)Original MessageFrom Katy Marsland (08111890) mailtoemailprotectedSent 26 April 2010 1925To emailprotectedSubject A Questionnaire request.Dear Sir,I am at the University of Lincoln and am doing a literature review for mydegree in Health and Social care involving your survey on the Legalisationof Euthanasia or Physician-Assisted Suicide Survey of Doctors Attitudes,and was wondering if it were possible for you to forward me a copy of thequestions in order to aid my review?Many thanks in advanceKaty MarslandReplyhither is the questionnaire. Clive(b)END OF LIFE DECISIONS IN MEDICAL PRACTICE CONFI DENTIAL ENQUIRYPLEASE TICK THE BOXES TO INDICATE YOUR ANSWERSTHANK YOU FOR YOUR ASSISTANCE General Background QuestionsYour age under 35 years of age 36 to 45 years of age 46 to 55 years of age 56 to 65 years of age over 65 years of ageYour gender male person femaleYour medical specialty General practice Palliative medicine neurology Elderly Care another(prenominal)(prenominal), please plantGrading of your post Consultant Specialist registrar Associate specialist / staff grade SHO / HO / F1 / F2 GP principal GP registrarPlease indicate the number of deaths, on average, for which you would be the treating or attendant doctor in the normal course of your duties attend only one of (a), (b) or (c). (Please give the most accurate estimate you can)(a)_______________per week(b)_______________per month(c)_______________per yearHave you been the treating or attendant doctor in the case of a death in the last 12 months? yes no Please go to question 30, on page 7SPACE FOR COMMENTS former ly YOU HAVE FINISHED THIS QUESTIONNAIREOnce you have completed this questionnaire, you can use this space to provide any clarifications to your answers or make other pointsPLEASE hand over TO RECALL AS CAREFULLY AS POSSIBLE THE MOST RECENT DEATH WITHIN THE digest 12 MONTHS FOR WHICH YOU WERE ACTING AS THE TREATING OR nonessential DOCTOR, AND ANSWER ALL OF THE QUESTIONS 1 TO 29 FOR THAT PARTICULAR DEATHIt is, of course, impossible to do justice to all the finer nuances of decisions concerning the end of heart in a short questionnaire. But please indicate those answers which approach the actual circumstances of this death as closely as possible.1Sex of the deceased male female2Age of the deceased(please estimate if unsure) under 1 year 1-9 years 10-19 years 20-29 years 30-39 years 40-49 years 50-59 years 60-69 years 70-79 years 80-89 years 90 years and over3Place of death hospital hospice care home deceaseds own home other (please specify)4Cause of death*This does not mean the mod e of dying,such as heart failure, asphyxia, asthenia,etc it means the disease, injury, orcomplication which caused death1a Disease or find out directly leading to death*1b Other disease or condition, if any, leading to 1 (a)1c Other disease or condition, if any, leading to 1 (b)2 Other significant conditions contributing to the death but not related to the disease or condition causing it5With respect to this death, when was your first contact with the forbearing? before or at the time of death go to Question 6 after death go to question 30, on page 76How long had you known this long-suffering? more than six months one to six months one to four weeks between one day and one week less than 24 hoursMedical actions7a7b7cConcerning this death, did you or a fellerwithhold a discussion* (or ensure that this was done)?withdraw a treatment* (or ensure that this was done)?use any drug to alleviate pain and/or symptoms?(please tick as many answers as apply)* IN THIS STUDY TREATMENT INCLUD ES CARDIO-PULMONARY RESUSCITATION (CPR), ARTIFICIAL FEEDING AND/OR HYDRATION no yes (please specify treatments withheld). no yes (please specify treatments withdrawn). no yes, morphia or another opioid yes, benzodiazepine yes, other drug8a8bIn withholding a treatment, did you or your colleague consider it probable or certain that this action would hasten the end of the longanimouss flavor?In withdrawing a treatment, did you or your colleague consider it probable or certain that this action would hasten the end of the patients life? no yes no treatment withheld no yes no treatment withdrawn9a9bConcerning the drugs used to alleviate symptoms, (Questions 7c), were these administered intimate this would probably or certainly hasten the end of life?partly intending to end life? no yes no drugs used to alleviate symptoms no yes no drugs used to alleviate symptoms10a10bIn withholding a treatment, did you or your colleague have the hard-core intention of hastening the end of life?In with drawing a treatment, did you or your colleague have the explicit intention of hastening the end of life? no yes no treatment withheld no yes no treatment withdrawn11a11bWas death caused by the use of a drug prescribed, supplied or administered by you or a colleague with the explicit intention of hastening the end of life (or of enabling the patient to end his or her own life?)If yes, who administered this drug (i.e. introduced it into the body)? no yes the patient you or another health care colleague a relative someone else melody IF YOU ANSWERED NO TO ALL THE QUESTIONS ON THIS PAGE, GO TO QUESTION 23Decision makingNOTE QUESTIONS 12 TO 22 REFER THE LAST-MENTIONED ACT OR OMISSION, THAT IS, THE LAST YES THAT YOU TICKED ON THE PREVIOUS PAGE (QUESTIONS 7 TO 11)12Which were the most important reasons for the last-mentioned act or slackness?(please tick all that apply_ patient had pain patient had other symptoms request or wish of the patient request or wish of relatives expected further suffering no chance of improvement treatment would have been futile further treatment would have cast upd suffering other (please specify at a lower place).13In your estimation, how much was the patients life shortened by the last mentioned act or omission? more than six months one to six months one to four weeks between one day and one week less than 24 hours life was probably not shortened at all14Did you or a colleague discuss the last-mentioned act or omission with the patient? yes, at the time of performing the act/omissionor shortly before go to Question 15 yes, some time beforehand go to Question 15 no, no discussion go to Question 1915At the time of this discussion, did you consider the patient had the capableness to assess his/her situation and make a decision about it? yes no16Did this discussion include the (probable or certain) hastening of the end of the patients life by this last-mentioned act or omission? yes no17Was the decision concerning the last mentioned act or omission made in response to an explicit request from the patient? yes, upon an oral request yes, upon a written request yes, upon both an oral and a written request no go to Question 2118At the time of this request, did you consider the patient had the capacity to assess his/her situation and make a decision about it? yes go to Question 21 no go to Question 21ONLY ANSWER QUESTIONS 19 and 20 IF YOUR ANSWER TO QUESTION 14 WAS NO, NO DISCUSSION19Did you consider the patient had the capacity to assess his/her situation and make a decision about it? yes no20Why was the last mentioned act or omission not discussed with the patient?(Please fill in as many answers as apply) patient was too young the last mentioned act or omission was clearly the surpassone for the patient discussion would have done more harm than good patient was unconscious patient had significant cognitive impairment patient was suffering from a psychiatric disorder other, please elaborate at the end of the questionn aire21Did you or a colleague discuss with anybody else the (possible) hastening of the end of the patients life before it was decided to take the last mentioned act or omission?(Please fill in as many answers as apply) with one or more medical colleagues nursing staff /other caregivers by partner/relatives of the patient someone else nobody22Which were the most important reasons for the last-mentioned act or omission?(please tick all that apply) patient had pain patient had other symptoms request or wish of the patient request or wish of relatives expected further suffering no chance of improvement further treatment would have been futile further treatment would have increased suffering other (please specify belowNOTE QUESTIONS FROM HERE ONWARDS SHOULD BE ANSWERED WHETHER OR NOT YOU ANSWERED YES TO ANY OF THE ACTS OR OMISSIONS MENTIONED ON PAGE 3 (QUESTIONS 7 TO 11)23Was an explicit request to hasten the end of the patients life made by any of the following?(Please tick all that ap ply) partners/relatives of the patient nursing or other care staff someone else no explicit request24As far as you know, did the patient ever express a wish for the end of his/her life to be hastened? yes, clearly go to Question 25 yes, but not very clearly go to Question 25 no go to Question 2625Did the patients wish for this outcome reduce or disappear over time? no yes, in response to care provided yes, other reason26The treatment during the last week was mainlyaimed at recovery prolonging life support during the dying process27Which caregivers were involved in the care for the patient during the last month before death (beside yourself and as far as you know)?(please tick all that apply)Of those not involved, which ones might have helped? involvedNot involved andmight have helpedgeneral practitionerspecialist in pain reliefpalliative care teampsychiatrist /psychologistnursing staffsocial care workerspiritual caregivervolunteerfamily member28a28b28c28dWas the patient constantly and deeply sedated or unbroken in a coma before death?Which medication was given for sedation?(please tick as many answers as apply)At what time before death was continuous sedation of the patient started?Which were the most important reasons for this sedation?(please tick all that apply) yes no go to Question 29a midazolam other benzodiazepine morphine or another opioid other type of medication. hours before death. days before death. weeks before death patient had balking pain patient had intractable psychological distress patient had other intractable symptoms request or wish of the patient request or wish of relatives other (please specify below29a29b29cDid the patient receive morphine or another opioid during the last 24 hours before death?How much time before death was the administration of morphine or another opioid started?Which figure best illustrates the dosage of morphine or another opioid during the last 3 days before the patients death? yes no go to Question 30. hours before death. days before death. weeks before death No increase Gradual increase Strong increase last dayAttitudes and beliefsQuestions 30 and 31 are about voluntary euthanasia (that is, when someone ends the life of another person at their request), worded in the same way as those used in surveys of general public opinion.3030a30bFirst, a person with an incurable and painful illness, from which they will die for example, someone dying of cancer.Do you speak out that, if they ask for it, a doctor should ever be allowed by law to end their life, or not?And do you think that, if this person asks for it, a doctor should ever be allowed by law to give them lethal medication that will allow the person to take their own life? Definitely should be allowed credibly should be allowed Probably should not be allowed Definitely should not be allowed Definitely should be allowed Probably should be allowed Probably should not be allowed Definitely should not be allowed3131a31bNow, how about a p erson with an incurable and painful illness, from which they will not die.Do you think that, if they ask for it, a doctor should ever be allowed by law to end their life, or not?And do you think that, if this person asks for it, a doctor should ever be allowed by law to give them lethal medication that will allow the person to take their own life? Definitely should be allowed Probably should be allowed Probably should not be allowed Definitely should not be allowed Definitely should be allowed Probably should be allowed Probably should not be allowed Definitely should not be allowed32Religion what is your religion? None Christian (including Church of England, Catholic,Protestant and all other Christian denominations) Buddhist Hindu Jewish Muslim SikhAny other religion, please put out in33Religion would you describe yourself as extremely religious very religious somewhat religious neither religious nor non-religious somewhat non-religious very non religious extremely non religious c ant choose34What is your ethnic group?Choose ONE section from A to E, then tick the appropriate box to indicate your ethnic groupA flannel any White backgroundB Mixed White and Black Caribbean White and Black African White and Asian Any Other Mixed background, please write inC Asian or Asian British Indian Pakistani Bangladeshi Any Other Asian background, please write inD Black or Black British Caribbean African Any Other Black background, please write inE Chinese or other ethnic group Chinese Any Other, please write inTo clarify any answers or to make further comments, please use the space on page 1.Thank you for your help with this important survey.Now that you have finished the questionnaire, to ensure the anonymity of your answers you will need to do two things.Place the completed questionnaire in the reply-paid envelope, seal it and post it as soon as possiblePost the reply-paid response notification card with your name on it if you wish to avoid receiving follow-up reminders. These two items will be received by different people in different locations and kept separate. It will not be possible to link your questionnaire with your name.This questionnaire has been sent to a random sample of 10,000 doctors. It will not be possible for the researchers or anyone else to use your replies to discover your identity or the identity of the patient on whose care you have reported.We understand that recalling events of this nature can be a distressing experience. If you wish to talk to someone about your feelings concerning end-of-life care, the Confidential Counselling Helpline of the British Medical Association can assist you. Their number is 0645 200 169(c)Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide in the United KingdomA Research ProposalPart BBy Katy Marsland 08111890University of LincolnHand in Date 4th May 2010(1,352 Words)Julie BurtonNUR2002M-0910 research Methods2009/2010Table of Contents PageTitle 26Research Questions 27Aims of Project 28Initial Literature Review 29-30 Methodology 31Ethical Considerations and Practical Constraints 32Timetable for Dissertation Research 33-34References 35A Research Proposal1. TitleEuthanasia and Assisted Suicide in the United Kingdom.2. Research QuestionsShould Euthanasia and Assisted Suicide be made legal? What are the arguments for and against policy change in the United Kingdom? Which section of smart set is most supportive of a change in the law? Which section is most opposed and why?3. Aims of ProjectThis research aims to investigate, using secondary data, whether a change in the law is needed to clarify the position of euthanasia and assisted suicide in the United Kingdom, and whether this should be made legal just for those who are terminally ill or for

Clock Arithmetic :: essays research papers

Clock ArithmeticThe takings of time has always been one of interest to me at least on a philosophical basis. Through the works of Einstein, ancient timepieces and calendars such as Stonehenge, and even theories on past and present, time is everywhere. I chose this topic to perhaps explore further the relevance of clocks and timepieces in mathematics and arithmetic. To gain a better understanding of the mathematical features of time would be recognise knowing that philosophy and mathematics argon closely related.Through what Ive seen in clock arithmetic the concepts could be taught and applied as early as first grade due to the nature of addition and subtraction involved. Clock Arithmetic is also used for technological reasons. Computer games are manufactured victimisation clock arithmetic to base a characters position due to the resolution of the screen on a certain axis. Example cipher you are playing a video game and the character in the game (lets call him goop) is walking f rom the left side of the screen to the right side. Max gets to the right side of the screen and keeps walking he disappears and reappears on the left side of the screen again. If the screen is 12 inches wide and we are keeping undercut of how far Max is from the left side of the screen, then as soon as he is 12 inches from the left side its as if he was cover version at the beginning again. If you put it pictorially, against a clock youd find that Max would start and end up at the same point.Now Id like to downgrade and put things in an elementary perspective. If it is 3 oclock and we add 5 hours to the time that will put us at 8 oclock, so we could write 3 + 5 = 8. But if it is 11 oclock and we add 5 hours the time will be 4 oclock, so we should write 11 + 5 = 4. Now everyone knows that 11 + 5 =16, but there is no 16 on the clock (unless youre on military time). Every time we go past 12 on the clock we start counting the hours at 1 again. If we add numbers the way we add hours on the clock, we say that we are doing clock arithmetic. So, in clock arithmetic 8 + 6 = 2, because 6 hours after 8 oclock is 2 oclock.

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This short story starts out by setting the scene. The American and a missy sit at a table in front of a building where they were waiting on a train to arrive. It is very hot away(p) and the background is hills described to be long and white. They look like white elephants, she said.Ive never seen one, the serviceman drank his beer.No you wouldnt have.I might have, the man said. Just because you say I wouldnt have doesnt prove anything. (Hemingway 6-10)These lines from Ernest Hemingway depict how a man can overpower a woman with his chosen words and tone. In this conversation between the American and the woman, you will see the woman become less and less sure of herself and eventually she cant even make her own decisions. The girl is even unsure if she wants water with her drink.We want two Anis del Toro.With water?I dont know, the girl said. Is it smashing with water? (Hemingway 19-21) Marsh 2In the previous lines you can see the girl is skeptical. She is waiting for reassurance from the American. The Huffington Post featured an article which came from a study conducted by the University of Texas. Students observed the behavior of boys and girls in a room and how they responded to social cues. Each child was left alone with his mother and were told by their mothers not to touch a forbidden object. The boys not only touched the object more frequently than girls but they ignored the mothers voice telling them no when they picked up the forbidden object. The girls touch the object less frequently and when they did they often looked at their mother for reassurance. The boys rarely paid attent... ... comforting the girl and telling her to come in the shade. This is him protecting her and giving the girl security which she doesnt have on her own. The train finally arrives which seems to have been what the girl wanted because she did not wish to dissertate the topic anymore. Marsh 7Works CitedZweig, Robert. Literature An Introduction to Reading and Writing Hills are Like White Elephants(1927) Tenth Edition. Pearson Education 2004. 350-353. Print.Biddle, Tabby. The Huffington Post wherefore Do Women Feel They Need Permission? Jan 30,2009Hoplock, Lisa Science of Relationships How You Doin? Self-Esteem Affects How People Flirt (2014) www.scienceofrelationships.com